Vikings: The Most Terrifying Force in History

Norse Thunder — How the Vikings Spread in All Directions With Terrifying Results

The British winter of 793 AD was filled with strange, ominous weather patterns. Ferocious thunderstorms tore through the sky — immense wind battered towns and villages across the island — some even swore they saw dragons circling.

In an age when superstition and omens played a fundamental part in everyday life, many saw these events as a chilling sign of something terrible to come. Less than six months later, something did arrive — the start of a dark period later dubbed “The Great Suffering.”

It began on the 8th of June, 793 AD, on the small island of Lindisfarne, off the Northumbrian coast in Northern England. This tiny tidal island was home to a monastery with a small Christian population and was a significant site to the faith because of its links to Saint Cuthbert and early Celtic Christianity.

That morning, three ships appeared on the horizon. Strange-shaped, with billowing sails and bizarre faces carved into their bows, they ran aground on a beach a short distance from the monastery. From them poured a terrifying sight.

A wave of warriors stormed into the monastery, hacking their way through the terrified monks within. Some were dragged back to the ships, never to be seen again; most died on this holy island. The warriors plundered everything they could from Lindisfarne before setting sail again and disappearing over the eastern horizon. The attack had been chaotic and bloodthirsty — and much more would come. The Viking Age had begun.

The Norsemen

While the brutality of the attack on Lindisfarne sent a shockwave through Christian Europe, this wasn’t actually the first time the pagan horde had visited the British Isles. Records suggest that a small landing party arrived in Portland Bay in Dorset several years before. The local reeve, a senior official operating as the crown’s representative, was said to have mistaken them for merchants.

The unfortunate man approached the strange group and ordered them to move down the coast to where all arriving merchants were directed, but he was killed almost immediately. We don’t know what happened next, but this is the first recorded instance of Vikings landing in Britain.

So why did the Vikings pour out of Scandinavia in practically every direction with such devastating effects? This is actually a point where historians aren’t entirely sure. The Vikings left little in the way of recorded evidence, and much of what we know about them is based on what was said by their enemies — often many years later.

One theory is pretty obvious and has often fuelled expansion throughout history — land. Scandinavia is limited in size, coupled with the facts that an even smaller area of it is farmable all year round and that winters throughout the region come with a savagery that’s enough to send anybody insane, it’s not hard to imagine how braving the seas for a more hospitable climate might have seemed attractive.

There are also questions of whether the entire rampage across Europe and beyond all began because of a lack of women in the northern extremities or perhaps it was down to good old-fashioned political intrigue back home and too many bristling warriors and roaring testosterone in such a small space.

The other reason that has come into vogue in recent years is yet another that has appeared throughout history — revenge. Charlemagne, King of the Franks and later Holy Roman Emperor, had instigated a bloodthirsty campaign to force pagan Saxons living in and around his lands to convert to Christianity or be killed using one of those wonderfully macabre methods that were so popular in the Medieval Age. The Saxons were a rough group that overlapped several modern countries, including Germany, Holland, and Denmark, and while their links with the Vikings are vague, it’s not an implausible idea.

Not only did these conversions cause outrage back in Scandinavia, but with Christianity slowly creeping northward into Norse lands, there must have been genuine hatred toward the faith seen as a direct competitor to the age-old Norse methodology of Odin, Thor, and Freyja.

Whatever the reason, and at this point, it’s probably safe to say it was a combination of several factors; when the Vikings did decide to spread their wings, they did so with a terrifying fury. Yet while their attacks on Britain and eventual settling there have become the stuff of Netflix legend, the Vikings spread in practically every direction with similar results. West to Iceland, Greenland, and even the extremities of North America, south as far as Sicily and Northern Africa, east deep into modern Russia, and perhaps as far as the ancient city of Baghdad.

The Vikings brought with them absolute terror. Nothing like this had ever been seen, certainly not since the wild days of the pre-Roman era more than 800 years before. Their ferocity was unmatched, and they cut through unprepared populations with horrifying ease. And yet, as we’ve already mentioned, they left very little in terms of concrete evidence.

The Viking Age lasted less than 300 years, but it’s not as if they were defeated in some grand battle and pushed back to Scandinavia. Wherever they went, they integrated with the local cultures, making them one of the most widely travelled ethnic groups in the region.

Britain and Ireland

The events on Lindisfarne in 793 AD were an eerie harbinger of what was to come for Britain and Ireland over the next century. The viciousness of the assault, especially on such a holy site, spread quickly throughout the land, and the following year, when Vikings attacked the wealthy monastery of Jarrow in Northumbria, they were met with firmer resistance. So much so that their leader was killed, and while many escaped, they were later caught and killed after their boats beached near Tynemouth. The calamitous raiding results shook the Vikings, and it would be forty years until they attacked England again.

In the meantime, they turned their fury on Scotland and Ireland. The first recorded attack on Scottish territory was on the monastery at Iona in 794 AD. The community recovered but was repeatedly sacked over the coming decades and eventually abandoned. Viking boats began attacking the Irish coast in 795 AD, again mostly monastic settlements of relative wealth.

These attacks increased and gradually spread inland over the coming decades. By 840 AD, the Vikings were overwintering in fortified settlements and raiding throughout the Emerald Isle. In 853 AD, Viking leader Amlaíb, also known as Olaf, became the first king of Dublin.

During this period, the English no doubt thought they’d managed to drive off the heathen barbarians once and for all, but in 865 AD, a vast armada appeared off the coast of East Anglia. This patchwork of Viking groups came to be known as the Great Heathen Army and acted as a great wrecking ball that tore England apart.

This formidable force was an amalgamation of Viking warriors from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, unified under the banner of conquest. Their arrival marked a stark shift in the Viking approach to England, from sporadic raids to a full-scale invasion intending to conquer and settle.

With its fertile lands and relative wealth, England presented an ideal target. Additionally, the political landscape at that time, fragmented into the four smaller kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, and Wessex, made it vulnerable to external threats.

The Great Heathen Army was led by notable Viking chieftains, including the legendary sons of Ragnar Lothbrok — Ivar the Boneless, Halfdan Ragnarsson, and Ubbe. Their strategy was methodical and relentless, starting in East Anglia, where they secured horses, significantly increasing their mobility and allowing them to strike swiftly and unexpectedly across the English territories.

The Vikings’ tactics were brutal and efficient, combining lightning-fast raids with sieges of significant settlements. Their superior naval capabilities meant they could move quickly along the rivers, striking deep into England. In many ways, these attacks were the Blitzkrieg of their time.

In 867 AD, they captured York, a major victory that effectively ended the independence of Northumbria. By 874, they had subdued Mercia, with East Anglia falling four years earlier in 870, after the martyrdom of King Edmund. Under King Alfred the Great, Wessex remained the last major stronghold against the Vikings — and it too came mighty close to falling.

While the English eventually managed to push them back, the attack of the Great Heathen Army led to extensive social, cultural, and political changes. The Vikings settled in large numbers, influencing local customs, language, and law. This period of history also set the stage for the eventual unification of England under a single monarch, a response to the Viking threat.

The Frankish Empire

While England represented a sizable and wealthy fruit ripe for picking, the Vikings knew that even greater riches lay further south. Raids on the Frankish Empire began in the 9th century and, like England to the north, caused havoc and led to long-term social and political changes.

One of the earliest significant Viking raids on the Frankish Empire occurred in 799 AD, near the island of Noirmoutier by the Loire River. This raid was a precursor to more audacious assaults in the following decades. The Vikings exploited the internal divisions and weaknesses of the Frankish Empire, which, after the death of Charlemagne in 814, was mired in civil wars among his heirs.

Utilising the element of surprise, they attacked monasteries, towns, and even cities, looting treasures and causing mass destruction. As in Britain, monasteries, richly endowed with wealth but poorly defended, were particularly attractive targets. The Abbey of St. Philibert on Noirmoutier was attacked repeatedly, and in 863 AD, the monks decided to move their religious site once and for all.

The Viking raids intensified in the mid-9th century. In 845 AD, Viking chieftain Ragnar Lothbrok famously led a fleet of 120 ships up the Seine River, eventually reaching and besieging Paris. The siege was lifted only after Charles the Bald, the Frankish king, paid an enormous ransom — a practice that became increasingly common as a means to buy off the Vikings.

Despite these payments, the raids continued with increasing frequency and ferocity. In 851 AD, Vikings overwintered for the first time on the Lower Seine, indicating a shift from raiding to more permanent settlements. This practice of overwintering allowed them to launch more extended campaigns and exert greater influence across the region.

The Frankish response to these invasions was initially disorganised and ineffective, hampered by internal strife and a lack of strong, centralised authority. However, as the Viking threat grew, efforts to counter them became more concerted. Fortifications were built along rivers, fleets were organised to combat Viking ships, and land forces were mobilised more effectively. The development of fortified bridges and towns, such as the fortified bridge at Pîtres, was crucial in limiting Viking movement on the rivers.

By the late 9th century, the Vikings had established several bases in the Frankish territory, most notably in Normandy, which was granted to the Viking leader Rollo by Charles the Simple in the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte in 911 AD. This grant was a strategic move by the Frankish king to use the Vikings as a buffer against further invasions. The settlement of Vikings in Normandy marked the beginning of their integration into Frankish society and the eventual assimilation of their culture.

The Viking raids on the Frankish Empire had significant long-term effects. They highlighted the vulnerabilities of the Carolingian Empire and contributed significantly to its fragmentation. The raids also led to dramatic changes in European military tactics and fortifications, with an increased emphasis on naval power and coastal defence.

Iceland, Greenland & North America

The Viking expansion into Iceland and Greenland during the late 9th and 10th centuries marked a significant chapter in the history of Norse exploration. Driven by a combination of political strife, overpopulation, and the allure of new lands, these Norse voyages led to the discovery and settlement of remote territories in the North Atlantic.

Iceland’s discovery is traditionally attributed to Norse chieftains fleeing the unification policies of King Harald Fairhair of Norway. Among the first settlers was Ingólfr Arnarson, who, according to Icelandic sagas, established a homestead in present-day Reykjavík around 874 AD. The discovery of Iceland was not due to complete chance but rather a conscious decision by Norse sailors and explorers, who had long heard of mysterious lands to the west from earlier scouting voyages.

The settlement process in Iceland was relatively peaceful, mainly because the island was uninhabited. The Norse brought their own governance structures, eventually establishing the Althing in 930 AD, one of the world’s oldest parliaments. This period, known as the Icelandic Commonwealth or the Saga Age, was marked by a flourishing culture and the creation of the famous Icelandic sagas.

Greenland’s discovery is credited to Erik the Red, who sailed westward and landed on Greenland around 982 AD after being exiled from Iceland for murdering his neighbour. He named the land Grœnland, or Greenland, perhaps to attract settlers with the promise of fertile pastures. In 986 AD, Erik returned to Greenland with a fleet of ships carrying settlers. Two main colonies were established: the Eastern Settlement and the Western Settlement.

Life in Greenland was challenging due to the harsh climate and limited resources. The Norse settlers relied on a combination of farming, hunting, and trade, particularly of walrus ivory with Europe. Despite these challenges, the Norse communities in Greenland survived for several centuries, with the last written records dating back to the 15th century. What happened next remains a mystery to this day.

While there have been many theories about what happened to the Greenland Vikings and why they completely vanished, including sea-level rise, drought, a cooling climate, disease, environmental degradation, conflicts with the Inuit, and economic disruption, no one knows how or why this thread of the Viking story suddenly disappeared.

The further west they went, the less we know about Viking exploration, but in 1960, evidence was found of a Viking settlement in L’Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada. This 11th-century settlement predates any other European visit to North America by centuries, but sadly, we have no idea how extensive their spread onto the continent was.

South, Eastward & The Forgotten Stories

The stories we’ve looked at so far have become the cornerstone of the Viking story, but their adventures, south and east, are far less told. In 859 AD, it’s believed Viking raiding parties began striking across the Iberian Peninsula and even into Northern Africa. The Book of Roads and Kingdoms, an eleventh-century geography text by Abu Abdullah al-Bakri, describes the Vikings as “Majus,” a term for heathens and fire-worshipers. There’s little direct evidence of this apart from a few African texts, although researchers in Morocco have recently found the remains of mice that appear to have originated from Scandinavia — perhaps stowaways on Viking ships.

We do know that their voyages led them deep into the heart of Europe and even Asia, culminating in profound interactions with various cultures, most notably the establishment of the Rus’ Khaganate.

The eastern voyages of the Vikings, or Varangians as they were known in Eastern Europe, were primarily driven by the lure of lucrative trade routes and the wealth of Byzantium and the Islamic Caliphates. These routes often followed the vast network of rivers, such as the Volga and the Dnieper, which stretched deep into the Eurasian continent. Unlike their raids in the West, the Vikings in the East often engaged more in commerce, serving as traders and mercenaries.

A pivotal moment in the Viking eastern expansion was the establishment of the Rus’ Khaganate. The traditional account, as recorded in the Russian Primary Chronicle, suggests that the Slavic and Finnic tribes called upon the Varangians to bring order to their lands. This led to the rise of the Varangian chieftain Rurik, who established a dynasty in Novgorod around 862 AD. His successors extended their control to Kyiv, laying the foundations of the Kievan Rus’, a federation of Slavic tribes under Varangian rule that remained until the mid-13th century.

Through their state of Kievan Rus’, the Varangians became key players in the trade between northern Europe and the Byzantine Empire — exporting items like furs, wax, honey, and slaves to the south and importing silks, wines, spices, and luxury goods.

This eastward expansion also facilitated cultural exchanges. The Varangians adopted elements of Slavic language and culture, while their own Norse culture influenced the people they governed — most notably, the introduction of Christianity to the region. The conversion of Vladimir the Great in 988 AD led to the Christianization of Kievan Rus’, aligning it more closely with Byzantine and European cultures.

In addition to their role as traders and rulers, the Varangians also served as mercenaries, most notably in the Byzantine Empire’s Varangian Guard. This elite unit, composed primarily of Norse warriors, served as the personal bodyguards of Byzantine emperors. They were renowned for their loyalty and ferocity in battle and played a crucial role in the imperial court of Constantinople.

Vikings, via the Volga trade route, even ventured into the Caspian Sea and reached the lands of the Persian Gulf and Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. This is where Viking history, already far from clear, gets even blurrier. A small carnelian bead found in Derbyshire in 1982 during the excavation of a Viking burial ground has led to many reevaluating the traditional Viking story.

The bead, originally from Gujarat in India, was discovered in a grave thought to be connected with the Great Heathen Army. If that’s true, it means the Viking expansion was much more extensive and much earlier than we’ve long thought. Rather than simply being murderous barbarians as history has painted them, their trade routes and commerce were considerably more evolved than they have ever been credited for.

The Vikings left almost no reliable evidence of their story. There are no great buildings with carved imagery, and even their great sagas were written long after the events. The Vikings remain an enigma. A people coloured by history, painted as murderous thugs who sacked, raped, and plundered their way across Europe and into Asia, but that’s not the complete story.

Yes, they brought hell to many places they visited, but so did many other tribes and cultures throughout the ages. The Viking Age may have been relatively short, but its influence on Europe and Western Asia was dramatic and lasting.

Key Takeaways

• The Viking Age began with a brutal raid on the Lindisfarne monastery in 793 AD.
• Vikings spread rapidly across Europe, driven by factors like land scarcity and revenge.
• The Great Heathen Army’s invasion of England in 865 AD marked a shift from raids to conquest.
• Viking raids on the Frankish Empire led to significant social and political changes.
• Vikings established settlements in Iceland and Greenland, and reached North America.

Frequently Asked Questions

When and where did the Viking Age begin?

The Viking Age began on June 8, 793 AD, with the attack on the monastery at Lindisfarne, off the Northumbrian coast in Northern England.

What was the first recorded instance of Vikings landing in Britain?

The first recorded instance of Vikings landing in Britain was in Portland Bay in Dorset, several years before the attack on Lindisfarne.

Why did the Vikings spread out from Scandinavia?

Historians suggest several reasons for the Vikings’ expansion, including the search for land, a lack of women, political intrigue, and revenge against Christian forces.

What was the Great Heathen Army?

The Great Heathen Army was a vast armada that appeared off the coast of East Anglia in 865 AD, consisting of Viking warriors from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, aiming to conquer and settle in England.

How did the Vikings impact the Frankish Empire?

The Vikings raided the Frankish Empire starting in the 9th century, exploiting internal divisions and weaknesses, leading to significant social and political changes and the eventual settlement of Vikings in Normandy.

Who were the first settlers in Iceland?

The first settlers in Iceland were Norse chieftains fleeing the unification policies of King Harald Fairhair of Norway, with Ingólfr Arnarson establishing a homestead in present-day Reykjavík around 874 AD.

What was the significance of the Rusʹ Khaganate?

The Rusʹ Khaganate was established by the Varangians, leading to the rise of the Kievan Rus’ and facilitating trade and cultural exchanges between northern Europe and the Byzantine Empire.

What evidence suggests Viking expansion into North America?

In 1960, evidence was found of a Viking settlement in L’Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada, dating back to the 11th century.

What was the impact of the Viking raids on monasteries?

Monasteries were particularly attractive targets for Viking raids due to their wealth and poor defenses, leading to significant destruction and the spread of terror across Christian Europe.

What is known about the Viking settlement in Greenland?

Erik the Red established settlements in Greenland around 982 AD, with two main colonies: the Eastern Settlement and the Western Settlement. The Norse communities survived for several centuries, but their eventual disappearance remains a mystery.

Sources

• Original Into the Shadows video: Vikings: The Most Terrifying Force in History
• Hero image source by Fralambert / openverse, by-sa.

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